So many problem sets

So many problem sets Now that term has geared up a bit, most classes have given some sort of homework, usually in the form of a problem set. I thought the prospectives on here might be curious to see what problems on problem sets are actually like, so Ive posted a few of the problems from my own problem sets (dont give me the answers! I havent solved all of these yet!). 9.22 has presentations and readings, not psets, so I didnt post anything from it. 6.004 has labs rather than problem sets, so I posted a problem from the first lab, which is due this week. 5.12 Organic Chemistry 3. Sphingosine, a component of sphingomyelin, is part of the cellular lipid bilayer. For sphingosine, a) draw in all of the hydrogen atoms. Label each sp3 carbon according to b) C-C connectivity and c) C-H connectivity (Y = methyl, E = methylene, I = methine). c) Label each amine, alcohol, and hydrogen by sp3 CC connectivity. 5. a) Draw Newman projects for the six energy maxima and minima for 2- methylhexane, sighting along the C2-C3 bond. b) Calculate the energy of each conformation. (Assume the same energy values for â€"Pr that you would for â€"Me.) c) Use these values to make a graph of potential energy versus dihedral angle. d) What is the barrier to rotation around the C2-C3 bond? 7.03 Genetics 4. This problem deals with the following pedigree [not pictured in this entry], which shows the inheritance of a very rare trait. (a) Assume that the inherited disorder is expressed with complete penetrance and that there are no new mutations. What mode(s) of inheritance is/are consistent with this pedigree? (Your choices are: X-linked dominant, X-linked recessive, autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant.) (b) For each consistent mode of inheritance, what are the probabilities that Individuals 1 and 2 will have: … an affected son? … an affected daughter? … an unaffected son? … an unaffected daughter? (c) Use Bayes theorem to calculate the probability that the next child of Individuals 1 and 2 will be affected with the disorder, given the new knowledge that the couple already has two healthy sons. Do this calculation for each mode of inheritance consistent with the pedigree. 9.29/ Intro to Computational Neuroscience 1. Mathematics of the integrate-and-fire neuron a) For a spherical neuron with a surface area of 0.03 mm2, a specific membrane capacitance of cm = 10 nF/mm2, a specific membrane resistance of rm = 1 M?-mm2, and a resting membrane potential EL = -70: i) What is the total membrane capacitance Cm? ii) What is the specific membrane conductance gm? What is the total membrane conductance Gm? What is the total membrane resistance Rm? iii) What is the membrane time constant tm? iv) How much external electrode current would be required to hold the neuron at a membrane potential of -60 mV? v) If this amount of current is turned on at time t = 0 and held at this value, how long will the neuron take to reach a membrane potential of -65 mV if the cell is initially at a voltage V = E_L? vi) Calculate the total charge required to polarize the neuron to the resting potential. Assume the predominant conductance is potassium and use [K]_in=140mM for the concentration of potassium in mammalian neurons. What fraction of the total number of K+ ions in the neuron is lost as the neuron is polarized? b) Show that V(t) = E_L + R_mI_e + (V(t_0) E_L R_mI_e)exp(-(t t_0)/T_m) where the constant t0 is any reference time, satisfies the equation T_m(dV/dt) = E_L V + R_m I_e when Ie is a constant. Also verify that when t = t_0, the left and right sides of the equation agree and that when t ? 8, V(t) ? V(8) = E_L + R_mI_e. Setting t_0 equal to the current time in a computer simulation and t equal to the next time step a time ?t later gives the one-time-step update rule we will use for simulating the integrate-and-fire neuron (and which we will use more generally for simulating any equation of the form of equation (0.2) above, e.g. in problem 3 for the spike rate adaptation conductance below if we substitute g_sra for V and set E_L=I_e=0): V ? E_L + R_mI_e + (V E_L R_mI_e)exp(-?t/T_m), where this shorthand notation means that, in the time step ?t, the voltage gets updated from its old value to the value on the right of the arrow, i.e. V(t-t_0) ? E_L + R_mI_e + (V(t) E_L R_mI_e)exp(-?t/T_m) 6.004 Computation Structures (C) To maximize noise margins we want to have the transition in the voltage transfer characteristic (VTC) of the nand2 gate centered halfway between ground and the power supply voltage (3.3V). To determine the VTC for nand2, well perform a dc analysis to plot the gates output voltage as a function of the input voltage using the following additional netlist statements: * dc analysis to create VTC Xtest vin vin vout nand2 Vin vin 0 0v Vol vol 0 0.3v // make measurements easier! Voh voh 0 3v // see part (D) .dc Vin 0 3.3 .005 .plot vin vout voh vol Combine this netlist fragment with the one given at the start of this section and run the simulation. To center the VTC transition, keep the size of the nfet in the nand2 definition as SW=8 SL=1 and adjust the width of both pfets until the plots for vin and vout intersect at about 1.65 volts. Just try different integral widths (i.e, 9, 10, 11, ). Report the integral width that comes closest to having the curves intersect at 1.65V.

Ptsd And Diagnosis Of Ptsd - 1024 Words

When working with service members and assessing them for diagnosis, it is important to have an understanding of the diagnosis and the impact it has on the military population. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is one of the most common mental health diagnosis veterans may develop after experiencing trauma. PTSD can occur after an individual has been through a traumatic event, such as combat exposure, terrorist attack, sexual or physical assault, or serious accidents. According to The Department of Veteran Affairs, â€Å"About 11-20 out of every 100 Veterans (or between 11-20%) who served in Operations Iraqi Freedom (OIF) or Enduring Freedom (OEF) have PTSD in a given year† (2015). The distinguishing characteristics in assessment of PTSD and diagnosis of PTSD are the evaluation of all of the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria, the assessment of associated features and comorbid disorders, and the establishment of a differential diagnosis. It is important that assessments for PTSD ar e psychometrically sound and that it collects information from multiple sources, measures different trauma populations, settings, genders, ethnic groups, and cultures (Foa Yadin, 2011). The first step in the assessment and diagnosis of PTSD is to evaluate if the service member has been exposed to an extreme stressor that satisfies the DSM-V definition of trauma described in criterion A. The service member must have had direct exposure or witnessed death, been threatened death, serious injury, or sexualShow MoreRelatedSymptoms And Diagnosis Of Ptsd1305 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction: This journal submission is a reflection on the July 14th (PTSD), 21st (Children Grief), and 28th (Children Grief cont.) class lectures and the videos, Alive Day, HBO (2006), Helping Children Grieve, Ford and D’Arcy, and will be the last in this series. PTSD This first lecture began with a comprehensive overview of PTSD. Some of the points highlighted included; everyone is at risk for PTSD and there is a very clear connection between grief and trauma. Grief can exist alone butRead MoreMilitary Disorder : The Diagnosis Of PTSD In Veterans1558 Words   |  7 PagesThe diagnosis of PTSD in veterans is different from that of a civilian diagnosed with the same condition. Civilians often experience an isolated traumatic event in their lives whereas veterans and active duty military members more frequently experience combat-related trauma while in a war zone or on the battlefield (Fragedakis Toriello, 2014). Many of these veterans and active duty military members keep silent about their symptoms for fear of consequences to their position or because of the stigmaRead MoreTrauma And Stressor Related Disorder984 Words   |  4 PagesIn the DSM-5, PTSD is listed under Trauma- and Stressor- Related Disorders. In order for a person to be diagn osed with PTSD, they must meet a number of criterion- the first one being exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence. If the person does not meet this criterion, they are automatically exempt from being diagnosed with PTSD. This alone is incredibly restrictive, ignoring many groups of traumatized victims including those with psychiatric diagnosis, or those beingRead MoreThe Importance Of Measures And Procedure1446 Words   |  6 PagesHe/she then completed a Clinician-Administered PTSD Inventory for DSM-5 (CAPS-5), which took approximately a half hour. The participant then completed two surveys on readjustment and marriage (Perceived Marital Self-Efficacy Scale--English Version and Post-Deployment Readjustment Inventory). Finally, each participant completed the Risk Assessment Suicidality Scale. Our study has an independent samples between subjects design. Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5. The first portion of our studyRead MoreWhat ´s Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder? Essay852 Words   |  4 PagesWhat is PTSD? Post-Traumatic Stress Di-sorder is a syndrome exp-erienced by many veter-ans, and is a priority of a plethora of psychological researchers. The Diag-nostic and Statistical Man-ual of Mental disorders lis-ts eight criterion for this widespread mental dis-ease, including a stressor, meddling symptoms, ev-asion, amendments in provocation and react-ivity, and a duration of symptoms for more than a month. PTSD is often characterized by disrupt-ions in sleep patterns, with the traumatic eventRead MorePost Traumatic Stress Disorder ( Ptsd ) Essay1162 Words   |  5 PagesSocial Identity, Groups, and PTSD In 1980, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD,) was officially categorized as a mental disorder even though after three decades it is still seen as controversial. The controversy is mainly founded around the relationship between post-traumatic stress (PTS) and politics. The author believes that a group level analysis will assist in understanding the contradictory positions in the debate of whether or not PTSD is a true disorder. The literature regarding this topicRead MorePost Traumatic Stress Disorder1004 Words   |  5 Pagescriteria of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder has changed since the DSM-IV. In the DSM-V, the diagnostic criteria draws a clearer line when detailing what establishes a traumatic event. The DSM-V pays more attention to the behavioral symptoms that accompany PTSD and proposes four distinct diagnostic clusters instead of three. They are described as re-experiencing, avoidance, negative cognitions and mood, and arousal. Re-experiencing is the spontaneous memories o f the traumatic event, recurrent dreams relatedRead MoreSocial Workers And The Social Worker Client Relationship1473 Words   |  6 PagesVeteran Affairs, PTSD Assessment. This website assists social workers by giving information on a variety of measures assessing trauma and PTSD in Veterans, such as assessment basics, training and tools, and veteran specific information (2015). This website provides facts about PTSD, as well as a practical guide to assessing PTSD. I would use this tool as a resource for working with a veteran with PTSD in order to assess for PTSD, or to gain more information regarding the veteran’s PTSD. This websiteRead MoreThe Effects Of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder1600 Words   |  7 PagesPost-Traumatic Stress Disorder, or PTSD, on the armed forces. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder is a medical condition that affects the physiology of the brain. It commonly affects those who have experienced or witnessed stressful events, such as war. PTSD was generall y referred to as â€Å"shell-shock† in the military, until an improved and more inclusive definition of the disease was discovered. Wartime environments contain a multitude of factors which are all potential causes of PTSD such as duress accreditedRead MoreThe Effects Of Stress And Trauma On The Human Psyche1657 Words   |  7 Pagesrecurring traumatic situations or experiences (American Psychiatric Association, 1980). The impact and imprint of trauma on the human psyche can lead to a diagnosis of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in some adults and children (Barlow, 2014; Courtois Ford, 2013; Soloman Siegel, 2003; Yarhouse, Butman McRay, 2005). This paper will explore PTSD as it is understood within the field of psychology and neuroscience beginning with a brief look its historical development in the American Psychiatric

Tourism and the European Union Free Essay Example, 5000 words

The UN in 1975 approved the MAP or Mediterranean action plan, and about ten years later (1985), the same countries that participated in MAP (excluding Albania) also declared the Geneva Declaration proposes by Greenpeace as part of their campaign to Save the Mediterranean. In 1987, a plan was initiated by the European Investment Bank and the World Bank called the Environmental Program for the Mediterranean (EPM) to meet the institutional, financial and environmental requirements of the Mediterranean and also to prevent the total degradation of the Mediterranean coastal areas. The EPM has about a span of 5 years and is expected to have about $200 million in expenditures. An offshoot of the MAP is the Blue Plan, which started as a revision for the MAP, and is to be taken up by any member country who participated to the environmental development and rehabilitation of the Mediterranean up until the year 2025. It has 3 approaches: the promotion of strong cooperation between inter-Mediterr anean regions and better North-South harmony, second the proper consideration of any of the effects of any method to the development of the Mediterranean in any area and the further understanding and improve the relationship between affected regions (American University, n.d. ).We will write a custom essay sample on Tourism and the European Union or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page Both parties must aim to have a sustainable relationship with the environment so that tourism will continue to benefit all. In the social aspect, tourists are encouraged to get along with the locals so that not only will they have stronger ties that will develop through them but also have a better economic relationship between them.

Psoriasis Treatment and Management Free Essays

Psoriasis is an autoimmune disorder of the skin, which means that the body’s defense system has turned on itself. This causes â€Å"angry red lesions to appear on the surface of the skin, multiply, and scale over with silvery patches† (1). Not only do they look hideous, but cause terrible itching and discomfort. We will write a custom essay sample on Psoriasis: Treatment and Management or any similar topic only for you Order Now â€Å"The word (psoriasis) comes from ancient Greece, and means ‘to itch'† (1). This disease can be present from birth or not show up until a person is well into their adult years. They can also be found anywhere on the body, from the scalp to the elbows. Psoriasis affects about two percent of the population. The severity can range from a few spots to massive outbreaks covering the whole body, requiring hospitalization. Although the disease is genetically inherited, â€Å"it has triggers which can cause the body to go from a very mild case to a severe case within days† (1). Strep throat and spicy foods are examples of triggers that increase the severity. â€Å"There are also other factors, such as sunlight, which help decrease the severity† (1). There are many types of psoriasis including, nail, scalp, plaque, pustular, guttate, inverse, erythrodermic, and psoriatic arthritis. Plaque psoriasis is the most common type. Along with these irritating physical side effects are the emotional factors. This disease can cause its’ victims to feel alienated from fellow coworkers and friends. People who have no experience with the disease tend to be distant towards those who do, because they think it is contagious. To compensate, sufferers often wear pants and long sleeves to cover their skin, even in summer heat, or avoid a social life altogether. There is no known cure for psoriasis, only the hope to control its’ severity. Each case of psoriasis is different, and may require a certain form of treatment or a combination of treatments to obtain relief. Most of those available now work to lessen the redness and itching, but tend to be pricey and time-consuming. Recently, scientists have developed a new method of treatment. The 308-nm excimer laser is a highly concentrated beam of UVB radiation. During the procedure a patient receives a certain, prescribed dosage of radiation on a large plaque of psoriasis. Unlike other methods of phototherapy, the laser only touches the effected area, leaving normal skin unharmed by unneeded radiation. In a study done in a university dermatology service, the following was reported: Thirteen consecutive patients with at least four large, stable psoriasis plaques were used. Excimer laser-generated 308-nm UV-B radiation was given to each of the four plaques, which received 1, 2, 4, and 20 treatments, respectively. Untreated areas within each plaque served as the control. With 308-nm UV-B radiation generated by an excimer laser, it is possible to clear psoriasis with as little as one treatment with moderately long remission (2). Carcinogenic levels, which measure the amount of cancer-causing radiation, were much lower in patients who use the laser technique, than in those who use total body UV-B radiation treatment. Unwanted side effects with the use of the 308-nm excimer laser include burning sensations and some blistering. The use of topical ointments with hydrocolloid dressings is a more traditional form of treatment. It involves applying a prescribed corticosteriod ointment, like calcipotriol, to a psoriasis plaque and then wrapping the area in a hydrocolloid dressing. In a study done by the Department of Dermatology in the Netherlands, it was reported that: After an average treatment of 3. 6 weeks, each lesion had cleared (apart from some residual erythema). The average remission period was 8 weeks. During this treatment, the number of cycling epidermal cells and the expression of keratin 14 and keratin16 had decreased substantially. It is speculated that a combination therapy of calcipotriol with treatments with a different mode of action, such as photo-therapy, might be worthwhile (3). However, some patients experienced discomfort in the normal skin surrounding the psoriatic patch with this method. Researchers also found that the psoriatic epidermal skin cells proliferated, or reproduced, at a much slower rate than normal, which means that the plaque formation would lessen and be controlled easier. Perhaps the oldest and most popular form of treatment for psoriasis on the market today is coal tar. â€Å"Exorex TM is a new over-the-counter preparation† which contains, â€Å"one percent coal tar† (1). This form doesn’t necessarily clear the effected areas, it relieves itching, redness, and scaling to a certain degree. It is probably the cheapest and easiest to use, and does not require a prescription to obtain. Most users have accepted the fact that they have this disease, and that there is no cure for it. Therefore, they use these ointments for personal physical relief, not to try and hide their psoriasis from others. There are few, trivial unwanted side effects of coal tar ointments. Susceptibility to sunburn, messiness, unpleasant odors, and staining of clothing and skin occur frequently. This active ingredient is not only found in ointments but medicated shampoos and bath solutions as well. Agranulocytosis is described as â€Å"a condition caused by a lack of or an insufficient number of white blood cells† (4). Scientists have found that in severe cases of psoriasis, drug-induced agranulocytosis actually helps to clear the affected areas. In a study done on a 45-year-old man by the International Journal of Dermatology, it found that: The patient was treated with intravenous granulocyte monocyte stimulating factor (GMSF). The GMSF was given on five consecutive days. On the sixth day, the psoriatic lesions cleared almost completely. There was 90% clearance of the lesions, with a PASI (Psoriasis Activity and Severity Index) being reduced (from 22) to 2. 2. The patient also had improvement in joint pain. In addition, the generalized lymphadenopathy detected at admission had reduced considerably (5). According to Dr. Kevin Patrick, lymphadenopathy is an inflammation of the lymph nodes, which filter organisms and bacteria out of the bloodstream (4). However astounding these results may be, scientists still claim that â€Å"drug-induced agranulocytosis is a complex phenomenon, it is difficult to comment on its exact role in the pathogenesis of psoriasis† (5). The most promising treatment for psoriasis is hard to prove, since each case is different, and not all treatments work for every victim. However, the 308-nm excimer laser technique seems to be the treatment with the best results. If a patient wants long-lasting clearance and does not mind sacrificing time and a large sum of money, the laser will work for them. However, for those who’s main concern is the physical side effects, such as itching, flaking, and redness, then coal tar ointments and similar products may be the choice for them. They are easy to obtain, most drugstores and supermarkets carry them, and fairly inexpensive compared to other treatments. For those who would like clearance of their plaques, but can not access the excimer laser therapy, calcipotriol ointment, and hydrocolloid dressings seem to hold the most promise for them. How to cite Psoriasis: Treatment and Management, Essay examples

Y2k (3038 words) Essay Example For Students

Y2k (3038 words) Essay Y2kWhat is Y2K and What Effect Did It Present On Modern Culture?Two seemingly small digits may turn January 1, 2000 from a worldwide celebration into a universal nightmare. Affecting companies worldwide, many pay millions upon millions of dollars in order for computers to recognize the difference between the years 2000 and 1900. One of the worlds most detrimental dilemmas, the year 2000 computer bug is an extensive and interesting problem that everyone must face. The definition and implications of the Year 2000 crisis are as unique as the steps taken by modern human culture to prevent them. Like all other tasks, computers process dates as numbers. To the outside world, date values can have numerous formats and meanings but to the internal workings of a computer, a date is just another set of numbers (Kendall 63). When expressing the year part of a date, using two digits such as 4/5/96, the possible values for this year part range between 00 and 99. Obviously, if the year part were expressed using four digits, the values could range between 0000 and 9999 (?The History and the Hype?). In real life, if one adds 1 to 99, the answer is 100. However, if one tells a computer to add 1 to 99 and also specifies that the result must be no more than two digits, the answer is 0 or 00. Now consider the effect of this numeric example on a date which expresses year values with two digits. If one takes the date 4/5/99 and tells the computer to add 1 to the year part, the result would look like 4/5/00 (Kendall 68). To most humans, this date will suggest that the year part represents the year 2000. But, to a computer (and this is basically the problem), because the numeric representation of the year is effectively zero, the year is interpreted as 1900. According to the logical thinking of a computer, adding 1 year to 1999 results in the year 1900 (Johnson Interview). We will write a custom essay on Y2k (3038 words) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The whole question is one of interpretation. Humans can usually distinguish the intended value of a two digit year because of the context of a date within its subject matter. For instance, if one writes I will graduate 6/1/01, most people will automatically assume that the year they hope to graduate in is 2001. If the person said the same thing to a computer, the chances are that the computer would interpret the same year as 1901 (Marcus 34). Basically, the definition of the Year 2000 problem is the ?inability of computer programs to correctly interpret the century? from a date which only has two year digits (Johnson Interview). On the face of it, the specification of the problem appears to be fairly simple, and so many may think so is the solution. After all, how much of a problem can two digits cause? As the reader will discover, those two digits will be the reason for the largest and most costly task ever undertaken by any industry, world wide. Almost all the time, the first question asked when somebody learns about the Year 2000 problem is, How was this allowed to happen? (Johnson Interview). To most people, the thought that so much damage could be done; by so many people over such a long period of time and completely undetected; is absolutely beyond belief (?Y2K: So Many Bugs So Little Time?). The fact of the matter is that the Year 2000 issue is there. Programmers are aware of this problem for years. Unfortunately for us, because of the I wont be around in 15 years, so it doesnt concern me attitude the programmers display, the problem goes unchecked (Johnson Interview). Its only because the likely implications of the Y2K crisis being almost on top of us and because companies now stand to lose large amounts of money that the issue is now finally receiving the attention it deserves (?Y2K: So Many Bugs So Little Time?). When examining the underlying reason for the cause of the problem, two culprits arise. The first, and certainly the most instrumental reason, is the issue of storage space in the 1960s ; 70s (Blair Interview). During this era, the cost of storing data was far from insignificant. In an effort to minimize storage costs, most projects will make a drive to cut down the amount of stored data required by an application (Johnson Interview). In this conservation, there is no stone left unturned. Draining numeric storage space to the smallest possible data type often occurs. Programmers cut character storage space, and before long, dates begin to feel the cut too (?Y2K: So Many Bugs So Little Time?). At the time when only needing the two-digit year part, it is uneconomical to store the full four digits of a year, including the century (?Y2K: So Many Bugs So Little Time?). Programs are able to continue processing dates as normal without ever understanding the concept of a century, so why not take out the century part altogether and save all that storage space (Marcus 35)? So, instead of storing a date as 4/5/1968, programmers begin to store dates as 4/5/68 (?The History and the Hype?). Before long, the industry adopts storing dates with only two digits for the year, because of saving space (Kendall 89). No doubt, at the time, some people will raise doubts about the long-term effect of this solution, but they are probably told that their systems will not be in place for more than a few years (Blair Interview). In fact, its not uncommon for corporate companies to have 20-year old applications in place now, which are core components of their major systems (?Y2K: So Many Bugs So Little Time?). Apart from the obvious problems with systems which are still around today, by adopting the two-digit year as an industry standard, the industry is laying the foundations for a future problem. Even as the cost of storage space became less of an overhead and there is no longer any need to store dates with two digit years, programmers continued to write applications which did so, partly out of habit and partly because of the need for new applications to share data in a common format with existing systems (?Y2K: So Many Bugs So Little Time?). .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc , .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc .postImageUrl , .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc , .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc:hover , .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc:visited , .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc:active { border:0!important; } .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc:active , .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub5ce326bceba56855b5aa319f741c4cc:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Cave Art (394 words) EssayIn addition to the cost of storage, the second probable reason for using dates formatted with two digit years is the question of user acceptance (Kendall 92). In every day life, its usually quite rare to complete any kind of date using four digits for the year. Consider things like checks, application forms, passports etc. None of these require that the date contain a four-digit year (Blair Interview). So its only natural for users to expect the same level of freedom from computer software. In fact, in many departments it has become common place for new application designs to be rejected by users on the grounds that it is unreasonable to expect a user to enter dates with four digit years (?Y2K: So Many Bugs So Little Time?). From the users point of view, why should they be forced into entering a full four digit year when the software is perfectly capable of accepting and processing a short two digit year (Blair Interview)? Its only now that the consequences of processing two-digit years are really being thought through that the flaws in this argument are beginning to show (?The History and the Hype?). From the technical perspective, there are two effects that could happen to a rogue application in the Year 2000. The first sign that something may be wrong would be when the whole system crashes! In some cases, a computer program will simply not be able handle calculations using the number zero. Without going into too much technical jargon, from a programming point of view, this would be the equivalent of putting square pegs into round holes (Johnson Interview). In many ways, a complete melt down would probably be the better of the two Year 2000 consequences. This is because a system crash is possible. It is something that can be seen and hopefully corrected. Given a system failure, a maintenance programmer should be able to identify the problem and go about fixing it (Johnson Interview). The second possible consequence of the Year 2000 problem is far more difficult to locate. In this situation, the system will continue to work without falling over, this will give the impression that nothing is wrong. However, while the program is running, errors will fill the results of date calculations (Johnson Interview). This second scenario is far more dangerous than the first because errors will creep into the data long before anybody notices that something is wrong. If the system provides data to other systems or the data calculated by the system is used over and over again, the effects of miscalculated dates could be far reaching. Because there is no possible crash or system failure, it could be weeks before the errors are picked up, corrupting systems, sub-systems and all kinds of external data by that time (Johnson Interview). Lets look at few examples of how incorrectly calculated dates affect ordinary business systems: Suppose one function of an accounting system is to provide a list of all invoices which have been outstanding longer than a month for the purposes of the debt collection office. Brand new orders may be given an invoice date of 2/2/00. In this case, the accounting system would flag up these brand new invoices because they have been outstanding for over 100 years (Blair Interview)! This scenario is mild compared to some possibilities. Suppose a finance company lends money to Mrs. Jones. The loan was created on February 2, 1996 and is set to run for a period of 5 years. The finance companys system, therefore, calculates that the expiration date is February 2, 2001 and sets a flag to stop taking payments from her account after that date. The following day, the system calculates that the expiration date of 02/02/01 has passed and therefore decides not to take any money from Mrs. Jones account (Kendall, 67). There are countless possible disaster scenarios just waiting to happen to systems when the century changes, and in some cases, these problems will start to happen before the change of the century. The bottom line is, if your system calculates, processes or stores any type of date related data, it is definitely at risk from the Year 2000 issue (Blair Interview). Everything in our world, from phone companies to the grocery store, is computerized (?The History and the Hype?). If Y2K takes effect, problems accessing food, money, and getting in touch with family and friends will occur. Fixing the worldwide problem requires an estimated $600 Billion (US) and analyzing millions of code (?Y2K: So Many Bugs So Little Time?). This spares only a few systems from Y2K. Estimation suggests that there are 500 billion lines of application code worldwide, of which some 85 percent needing corrected (?The Millennium 2000 Bug Total Y2K Repair Kit?). Various reports stated that by the turn of the millennium, as much as 50 percent of all businesses which failed to address the Year 2000 challenge will break down (?Y2K: So Many Bugs So Little Time?). Managers become heavy-hearted thinking about their future as December 31, 1999 rolls in (Kendall 67). Knowing that there is going to be a disaster does not help much especially when there are few resources to handle the problem. Fearing the effects of the crisis, companies worldwide need an additional 200,000 COBOL programmers (?The History and the Hype?). Because the cause of the problem stems back some twenty or thirty years, the programming languages most affected by the Year 2000 problem are older languages such as COBOL. In fact, its probably fair to say that COBOL accounts for most of the worlds business applications (Blair Interview). Because the Year 2000 problem is so easily identifiable with COBOL and because there are new languages, many people are under the impression that any system written using the new programming languages is completely Year 2000 ready (Gates 72). In reality, nothing could be further from the truth (?The History and the Hype?). .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8 , .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8 .postImageUrl , .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8 , .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8:hover , .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8:visited , .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8:active { border:0!important; } .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8:active , .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8 .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u4ed572ef8296f409379fa07c593050e8:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Revenge EssayVisual Basic includes various date handling functions and procedures which are totally unaware of the Year 2000. In fact, because of the implication that these functions will work into the Year 2000, and because of over confidence in the language, applications built using Visual Basic are probably more likely to cause problems than many other languages (Gates 72). Microsoft has taken steps to correct these problems by introducing fixes to these date functions in each of the major new releases. Visual Basic 5.0 introduces an industry accepted technique known as windowing. This technique makes assumptions about the intended century of a two-digit year. However, the window is a fixed window that only interprets dates up until 2030, which flaws the solution. For instance, given the date 01/01/32, Visual Basic will assume that the intended year is 1932 (Gates 72-73). The role that dates play in a business is critical to whether or not the problem will exist. Going to the problem of electrical companies, date-coding plays only a minor part in the production of electricity, but it plays a major part in the metering of electricity usage (?Y2K: So Many Bugs So Little Time?). The Senate concluded that local power blackouts will be likely, but national power breakdown is not. If they do happen it will only be for about a week, but in major metropolitan areas they shouldnt be more than 48 hours. (?The Millennium 2000 Bug Total Y2K Repair Kit?). The government is working laboriously to get prepared for the new millennium, but are they ready? One of the lagging branches is Social Security which keeps track of everyone in the country (?Y2K: So Many Bugs So Little Time?). Next is the military, nuclear reactors, and air transport systems. The Department of Defense reported that only 72 percent of its ?mission-critical systems? are ready (?The Millennium 2000 Bug Total Y2K Repair Kit?). Also, what about the nations linked up to us? Being so far behind, they jeopardize the rest of us. Another lagging industry is hospitals and health care. Health care is one of the worst-prepared for Y2K and carries a significant potential for harm. For patient treatment, insurance claims, and pharmaceutical manufacturing and distribution, the industry relies on computers (?The History and the Hype?). Fearful organizations are not the only ones suffering the millennium bug. Anyone, even a personal computer user, can be. Surfing the net would prove that the Y2Ks awareness level is growing with more sites dedicated to this problem (Blair Interview). ?Pessimists? say that we will fall into global recession and have another ?depression? as in the 30s era. Stock markets might fall because of companies that are not exactly ready for Y2K. ATMs and banks may not be able to transact money because of this. Grocery stores relying on computers to deliver goods, take inventory, and even scan pricing will go down. There will be riots, looting, and world wide power outages. Home appliances will go crazy and telephones will be unusable. Planes and trains will collide into each other, gas pumps wont work, or the cars computer will malfunction so we cant go anywhere. They think that it is the end for civilization as we know it. Could they be right? Could we be going back to the Stone Age (?The Mill ennium 2000 Bug Total Y2K Repair Kit?)? There is no magic solution, silver bullet or quick fix to the Year 2000 problem (Johnson Interview). ?Yes, its true that we can put a man on the moon, or speak to people on the other side of the planet. If we want, we can even blow the world up a thousand times over. However, we cant fix the Year 2000 problem with one swoop of a magic wand (Blair Interview).? Because of the complexity and number of different business applications, platforms, languages, technologies, programming styles and business scenarios, it is impossible to come up with a one-time, fix all solution. Instead, the problem needs to be addressed by each company individually (?The History and the Hype?). Unfortunately, the only way of being 100% certain that a given application will function as expected into and beyond the next century is to physically address every single line of code and thoroughly test each function in the given application. Regardless of the size and complexity of an application, it only takes one single line of programming code to bring a system to its knees (?The History and the Hype?)!Ignoring the Year 2000 computer crisis?one of the most serious and potentially devastating events this world has ever encountered? was of no use. Postponing it was out of the question. It set a date for us. A considerable number of people believed the end of the world was near, implicating that we would be back to stones and sticks. Be prepared for the worst and hope for the best is one way to describe the Year 2000 crisis. Even though we didnt know what exactly would happen when the double zeros struck, Y2K will definitely be a milestone in history. Works CitedBlair, Gary. Interview. 16 Mar. 2000. Gates, William H. Business @ The Speed of Thought: Using a Digital Nervous System. New York, NY: Time Warner, 1999. ?The History and the Hype.? 5 Oct. 1996: n.pag. On-line. Internet. 10 March 2000. Available WWW: http://www.time.com/Johnson, Warren. Phone interview. 14 Feb. 2000. Kendall, Julie E., and Kenneth E. Kendall. Systems Analysis and Design. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999. Marcus, David L. ?E-Mail Nation.? U. S. News World Report 22 Mar. 1999: 54-62. ?The Millennium 2000 Bug Total Y2K Repair Kit.? 12 Sept. 1996: n.pag. On-line. Internet. 8 February 2000. Available WWW: http://www.firstgalexy.com/2000cure/fix.htm?Y2K: So Many Bugs? So Little Time? 14 Dec. 1998: n.pag. On-line. Internet. 10 February 2000. Available WWW: http://www.scientificamerican.com/Computers and Internet

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